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 Effigy mounds

= = =I. Background/History=

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Effigy mounds, more commonly referred to as Native American or Indian burial mounds, are some of the oldest monuments found in the World. The mounds were constructed mostly from earth, clay, and some larger stones, piled far and wide to create huge representations of animals. Some Native Americans believe that the effigy mounds symbolize the spirits of the sky, earth and water. They were, most likely, incredibly difficult to build. Though similar in structure, every monument was believed to be diverse in order to create mounds for different purposes. Effigy mounds were also built on many different landscapes: near rivers and streams, in valleys, and even on high ground. Although the tribes' identities of who built these wonders are still uncertain. media type="youtube" key="hCLGUqG87E0?fs=1" height="349" width="425" align="center"

Today, we only know a small amount of factual evidence regarding these man-made wonders. We know what they used to contain, where they were built and during what time period, and major differences in design. However, their true purposes and roles in the American Indian lifestyle remain a mystery.

Purposes
Many theories and explanations have risen in the past to provide insight to the mysteries of effigy mounds. One of the main unanswered questions about burial mounds is their true purpose. Through the extensive archaeological research and time plotting, it has been almost impossible to define a true answer. William M. Hurley, author of //An Analysis of Effigy Mound Complexes In Wisconsin//, provides an understandable explanation for lack of true data: //"The position that archaeologists should work within their discipline to construct their own theoretical models requires the judicious use of material remains to clarify the unknown. While inference and speculation are the prerogatives of every archaeologist, theories can only be replaced by better theories; they cannot be replaced by facts" (353).// Thus, theories involving the true purposes of effigy mounds can only be improved by better theories. Though we will never know for certain whether current theories are actually factual, current theories are based off of well-known facts and could easily explain the purposes of effigy mounds. Though their true purpose has never been revealed, William J. Smyth (author of //Mound-Builders//), suggests that they have been classified into categories: temple and sacrificial mounds, burial mounds, symbolic mounds, and signal mounds. Temple/sacrificial mounds may have served as places of worship. During excavation of some effigy mounds, human bones have been found near altars and layers of ash and blue clay. These clues all indicate human sacrifices may have been made (16). Most commonly, effigy mounds are believed to be burial sites. This may definitely be factual: human remains and placement of relics have been found in many mounds. Relics and other artifacts may have been placed with buried corpses to be taken to the afterlife. Effigy mounds are also believed to be very symbolic monuments. These mounds are the most common in Wisconsin, their diverse, intricate animal shapes may indicate that certain mounds were used for different purposes or defined one group of people from another. Lastly, effigy mounds may have been used to signal to the group or tribe. Among the other groups of mounds, there are many indefinite mounds that have been discovered, scattered across the United States with no clear purpose (34).

Early History
Archaeologists have concluded that specific groups of people began building effigy and burial mounds in the Midwest. These Archaic people were the first to start many things as early as 800 B.C.. Woodland groups are defined for the beginning of cultivating crops, creating pottery, refining tools, and of course constructing effigy mounds. Specifically, in Wisconsin, Woodland peoples as well as Mississippians and Oneota followed the Woodlands' way of life (Holliday 25).

The Native American mound builders are known to have lived during the Woodland Period, which has distinct early, middle, and late time periods. Though there is some skepticism, effigy mounds are believed to have been constructed mainly during the Late Woodland Period, which ran from 1400 to 750 B.P. (before present). Pointing out the order of the ancient mounds, William J. Smyth, says that prehistoric Native Americans were, “a very intelligent and somewhat civilized race” (4). After years of adaptations, mounds formed from small, spherical burial mounds into great earthworks of animals. It is evident that the mounds were built incredibly well--- the structures have lasted thousands of years. The remains of the mound builders’ lifestyle have shown us that their culture was rather advanced.

Uncovering the mystery of the mounds is extremely difficult due to how rare they are in the United States today. In //Native Peoples// journal, Gary Ilminen writes, "Two hundred years ago, about a quarter-million effigy mound structures existed across North America. Wisconsin alone had an estimated 20,000 mounds at more than 3,000 sites, more than anywhere else in the Upper Midwest. Farming and development erased all but about 4,000 of them before off-reservation mound sites gained legal protection in 1985" (46). Because of the depletion of the mounds, any areas that contain these mysterious mounds are protected as a national treasure. It is quite uncommon to find large collections of the mounds together so the parks in Wisconsin are extremely unique.

Archaeologists believe Effigy Mound communities were egalitarian, as no evidence has been found for long-distance trade in exotic, valuable, or ritual items or for differential burial of possessions indicating rank or status. The effigy mound builders usually buried their dead in small pits or laid them on carefully prepared surfaces. The effigy mounds were then built over them like grave markers. Sometimes a humble object such as a cooking pot or an arrow was included in the mound, but more often no grave goods were left behind at all(Culture).

Archaeological findings have shown us that effigy mounds played a large part in the lifestyle of early Native Americans. It is unclear specifically when building started or when it stopped, but we do know a few things. First, that burial mounds and monuments can be found across the entire globe and mound builders found in central North America may have been one of the earliest civilizations to start this. Second, the abrupt end of the Woodland culture and the construction of effigy mounds could easily be explained by the presence of white man. Lastly, even though there have been hundreds of different monuments created by many different types of people for different purposes, effigy mounds are characteristic to only the Woodland peoples and today are one of the most mysterious historical monuments found in the world.

These mounds puzzled the early white settlers. In fact this was debated for many years. Who built the mounds? In the late 1840's, a Wisconsin scientist by the name Increase Lapham began mapping and investigating the effigy mounds. He was sent out to find out who built these mounds by the Smithsonian Institute. He spent years surveying the land. Finally, in 1984, Lapham was able to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that early Native Americans were the people responsible for the creation of the mounds.

=II. Methodology= Throughout our project, we used many different resources and approaches when doing research. Jake and Danielle used traditional methods of research to find background information on how effigy mounds were built, when their were built, and for what purposes the were built. The traditional research was not centered on any specific mounds; rather, it covered information on many different mounds found in states across the Midwest and even farther east. Melissa did most of our field work, which was gathered at Sheboygan's Indian Mound Park. This allowed us to find specific information on the local effigy mounds. This is especially important because Wisconsin was the center of effigy mound culture.

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=III. Fieldwork=

Indian Mound Park was erected in 1968. Over an area of fifteen acres, there are 18 rare Indian mounds. These mounds are believed to have been made between 500 and 700AD. This time line falls right around the woodland period. Like most effigy mounds, these mounds have been made into shapes of animals and some patterns. The mounds inside Indian Mound Park include five deer and two panthers.

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= = = = = = = = =Fawn= == = Open Mound= == = = = = =IV. Analysis/Conclusions=

Reflection of Native American Culture
<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 17px;">As early as the 1800’s, people in western societies were discovering Native American burial or effigy mounds in areas all around the United States. What they did not know was the purpose of the mounds in the lives of the Native Americans. One theory was the use of effigy mounds as a pure connection to nature. Bill Willard wrote in his guide to classroom discussion of American Indians, “The goal of the traditional Indian was to strike a harmonious balance with nature and not to attempt to control it” (6). This connection can be observed in many different aspects of the culture of Native American tribes and could help to explain the usage of effigy mounds. If this scenario were correct, Native Americans created the mounds as representatives of their connection to certain animals; similar to their use of animals on totem poles and jewelry. This analysis also makes logical sense because of the types of animals they portray. Animals such as bears, deer, birds, and panthers are often seen in Native American cultures because they contain desirable characteristics that Native Americans wish to connect with.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 17px;">Another explanation of the usage of burial mounds could be the Native American concept of time. Observed in many different aspects of their culture, they perceive time to be circular instead of the common western perception of linear time. In a Native American perspective, life follows a pattern that will repeat itself in the future. Therefore, when someone dies, their funeral will have an impact on their life so they use the burial mounds to embellish the funeral. This explanation deals with a core concept of Native American culture that is the major difference between their society and Western culture. A major part of Native American researchers support this hypothesis because it follows a central theme in Native American history. Unless other findings are found in the future, the mystery of the mounds will remain unsolved. We should continue to protect the mounds as a national landmark because they tell the real history of the United States before westerners arrived at the mainland, they tell the story of Native Americans.

=V. Works Cited=

<span style="display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: -3em;"><span style="display: block; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Birmingham, Robert. Indian Mounds of Wisconsin. Madison, WI.2000
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">"Effigy Moundbuilders." //U.S. National Park Service - Experience Your America//. 13 Sept. 2010. Web. 07 May 2011. <http://www.nps.gov>.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">"Effigy Mound Culture". Wisconsin Historical Society. Web. 08 May 2011. <[|http://www.wisconsinhistory.org]>
 * <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Hedstrom, Elizabeth. "Mound builders." //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">National Parks // 67.1/2 (1993): 37. //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Academic Search Premier //. EBSCO. Web. 08 May 2011.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Holliday, Diane Young, and Bobbie Malone. //Digging and Discovery: Wisconsin Archaeology//. Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 2006. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Hurley, William Michael. //An Analysis of Effigy Mound Complexes in Wisconsin//. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, 1975. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Ilminen, Gary. "Mounds of Mystery." //Native Peoples// 21.6 (2008): 46-48. Print.
 * <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Jones, E.B. "Mound City Group." //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Travel Holiday // 175.6 (1992): 96. //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Academic Search Premier //. EBSCO. Web. 08 May 2011.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Knauf, Mary T. //Sheboygan Indian Mound Park: History and Nature Trail Guide.// S.l.: S.n., 1981. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">MacLean, John Patterson. //The Mound Builders//. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke &, 1879. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Moorehead, Warren K. ": Archaeological History of Ohio. The Mound Builders and Later Indians .Gerard Fowke."//American Anthropologist// 4.3 (1902): 512-16. Print.
 * <span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">"New Scholarly Books." //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Chronicle of Higher Education // 56.30 (2010): B20-B21. //<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; outline-color: initial; outline-style: initial; outline-width: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Academic Search Premier //. EBSCO. Web. 08 May 2011.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Smyth, William J. //Mound-Builders//. Montreal: Gazette Printing, 1886.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 32px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Stoltman, James B. "Tillmont (47CR460), A Stratified Prehistoric Site in the Upper Mississippi River Valley." //The Wisconsin Archeologist// 86.2 (2005). Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">Thwaites, Reuben Gold. //The Story of Wisconsin,//. Boston: Lothrop Pub., 1899. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">United States. Washington Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Div. of Instructional Programs and Services. //Breaking the Sacred Circle//. By Bill E. Willard. Print.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 32px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: -3em;">"Will C. McKern: Science in Archaeology at the Founding of the SAA." //The Wisconsin Archeologist// 85.2 (2004). Print.